Treaty Obligations of UN Member States to Provide Human Rights Education

20 Oct Treaty Obligations of UN Member States to Provide Human Rights Education

Prepared for the Geneva Office for Human Rights Education by Jordan Dez, of Kirton McConkie, Attorneys at Law

 Introduction

This paper reviews states’ obligations under international law to provide human rights education (HRE). Knowledge of such obligations might provide the rationale for assessing compliance with human rights education commitments and for the inclusion of the human rights education activities of states in general reviews of their human rights records.

While it is true that the Universal Periodic Review (UPR)[1] was created to provide a systematic mechanism for a formal review of member states’ HR record over a period of the preceding four years, specific questions about human rights education are seldom found among the evidence indicators of compliance. It is precisely the extent to which Human Rights Education is a component of more general human rights obligations that is our concern here. The international NGO community concerned with human rights issues may also benefit from shared awareness of states’ obligations to provide HRE.

It is important to note that the international legal instruments discussed in this memorandum vary in degree of binding effect and enforceability. For example, Declarations and Resolutions of the UN General Assembly are binding on internal UN matters, but do not give rise to binding covenants for state parties. International treaties, however, are entered into by state parties individually and are thus binding on the state party. As will be discussed in greater detail below, human rights treaties generally include reporting requirements through which the state parties will report to an implementing committee, the “treaty body,” regarding the state’s progress implementing the covenants of the treaty. The treaty body, in turn, will issue a General Comment interpreting provisions of the treaty, which are authoritative interpretations of the treaty. Finally, frameworks for action, such as the World Program for Human Rights Education, encourage the implementation of various treaty obligations, but are themselves non-binding.

We begin with a review of the treaty obligations to provide human rights education. This review will include pertinent interpretations from the General Comments of the treaty bodies and will reference any binding covenants from the treaties regarding the provision of education on freedom of religion. Next, this memorandum will review the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, and the UN Declaration on Human Rights Education. Though non-binding, these declarations set the policies that undergird the treaties. Finally, this memorandum will end with a discussion of the most relevant frameworks for action with an eye toward drawing upon the current movements in support of human rights education.

Convention on the Rights of a Child

State parties to the Convention on the Rights of a Child committed to provide human rights education. Specifically, Article 29(1) reads, “States Parties agree that the education of the child shall be directed to . . . the development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, and for the principles enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations.”[2] The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child (“CRC”) monitors whether states are conforming with their obligations under the treaty. State parties are required to submit an initial report on compliance with the treaty, and a follow-up report every five years thereafter.[3] Included within the initial reporting requirements are Article 29 efforts.[4] Though some reservations have been entered to this treaty, there are no specific reservations to Article 29(1).[5] Every nation in the world except the United States has ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child.

The CRC describes in a General Comment that the covenants to provide human rights education in Article 29(1) are the “foundation stone for the various programs of human rights education.”[6] Effective implementation of these covenants requires national law or policy formally incorporating principles of human rights education into education policies and a “fundamental reworking of curricula . . . and the systemic revision of textbooks and other teaching materials.”[7] Given that the Convention on the Rights of a Child is binding and widely ratified and already includes a robust reporting mechanism, this Convention provides a legal instrument through which to enforce a state’s obligations to provide human rights education.

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination

On December 21, 1965, state parties agreed to the “Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,” (“CERD”) which details fundamental obligations and means to combat racial discrimination. There are 178 state parties to CERD, only five of which have not ratified the treaty,[8] leaving only fourteen nations that are not party to the CERD.

Among those methods listed, Article 7 states, “States Parties undertake to adopt immediate and effective measures, particularly in the fields of teaching, education, culture and information, with a view to combating prejudices which lead to racial discrimination and to promoting understanding, tolerance and friendship among nations and racial or ethnical groups, as well as to propagating the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations,[9] the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, and this Convention.”[10]

It is notable that the CERD requires education about the Universal Declaration of Human Rights because the Universal Declaration on Human Rights expressly includes freedom to religion. The UNHDR states at Article 18:

Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.

The only nation to enter a reservation to Article 7 was the United States, which reserved to the extent Article 7 restricts an individual’s freedom of speech. Before this treaty is used for enforcement, general reservations and declarations should be examined on a country-specific basis, as discussed above regarding the Convention on the Rights of the Child.

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (“ICESCR”), Article 13(1) states in relevant part, “education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and the sense of dignity, and shall strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.”[11]

The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights monitors the implementation of ICESCR. Similar to the Convention on the Rights of a Child, ICESCR has a State reporting requirement that is implemented and reviewed by, in this case, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. In the General Comment of this treaty body, the Committee emphasizes that state parties are required to ensure that educational curricula meets the objectives identified in Article 13(1). Further, the Committee states that provision of curricula inconsistent with 13(1) is a violation of the treaty.[12]

There are 165 state parties to the ICESCR, five that have not ratified, leaving twenty-seven states that are not party to the treaty. Many reservations were entered to Article 13. Though some countries, such as Algeria, and Bangladesh, entered a reservation to the entire article, most countries only entered a reservation to Article 13(2) on the compulsory provision of education.[13] No reservations were entered specifically to Article 13(1).

The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (“CRPD”) requires, at Article 24(1) that state parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to education. Further, education shall be directed to “[t]he full development of human potential and sense of dignity and self-worth, and the strengthening of respect for human rights, fundamental freedoms and human diversity.”[14] CRPD has 173 state parties. Although there are reservations entered for certain sub-sections of Article 24, there are no reservations entered for Article 24 subsection (1).

Other Human Rights Treaties

The following Treaties contain provisions requiring State Parties to provide certain aspects of human rights education, while not establishing a broad human rights educational curriculum.

The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families does not have a specific human rights education requirement, but rather, requires at Article 33 that migrants and their families have a right to be informed by their State of origin, employment, or transit of their rights arising out of the Convention,[15] such as, freedom of religion (Art. 12). This Convention has not been widely ratified. There are only fifty-one state parties to the Convention. Fifteen of the state parties have not yet ratified the Convention.

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (“CEDAW”) is one of the international human rights treaties, but does not contain an explicit provision for human rights education. Instead, CEDAW’s provision on education, Article 10, is focused on equal access to men and women to education. CEDAW has been ratified by 189 countries, two countries have not ratified, and six countries have taken no action.

The Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (“CAT”) requires, at Article 10, that State Parties ensure that law enforcement and military personnel are trained regarding the prohibition against torture.[16] There are 161 state parties to CAT.

Enforcement Mechanisms

In addition to the UPR, the other available enforcement mechanisms for treaty obligations are through the reporting requirements to the treaty bodies and a Special Rapporteur. As discussed above, state parties to treaties have reporting requirements regarding their compliance with treaty obligations. Though many state parties are behind on their reporting obligations, this nonetheless is one of the enforcement mechanisms for human rights compliance. There are also complaint mechanisms to report violation of treaty obligations, but these mechanisms are mainly designed for complaints by other states or individuals whose rights have been violated.

For individuals or groups who fall outside the reporting mechanisms to the treaty bodies, inquiry can be made to a Special Rapporteur. The Human Rights Council has appointed Special Rapporteurs (also called Special Procedures) to conduct investigations and report back to the Council about human rights violations. Special Rapporteurs can intervene with state governments regarding violations of human rights that come within their mandate. There are currently forty-three thematic mandate Rapporteurs and thirteen country-specific Rapporteurs. There is not currently a Special Rapporteur on human rights education, however, there is a Special Rapporteur on Education, Ms. Koumou Boly Barry of Burkina Faso. Her mandate was initially entered in 1998 and was extended in 2014. She can be reached at sreducation@ohchr.org.[17]

United Nations Declaration on Human Rights Education and Training

The United Nations Declaration on Human Rights Education and Training (the “Declaration”) is the most comprehensive and explicit treatment of the subject under international law. First adopted by the Human Rights Council in March 2011 and then later adopted by the General Assembly without a vote in December 2011, it is a non-binding instrument, but provides guidance to the content of the human rights education to which state parties are bound.

The General Assembly Resolution that adopted the Declaration “invites”[18] governments and others to “intensify their efforts” to disseminate the Declaration. In the Preamble to the Declaration, the General Assembly reaffirms that member States are “duty-bound” by various human rights instruments including the Universal Declaration on Human Rights[19] and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to “ensure that education is aimed at strengthening respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.”[20] Article 7 of the Declaration states that governments have the primary responsibility to promote and ensure human rights education and training “to the maximum of their available resources”[21] to ensure a human rights education and training programs are implemented.

Frameworks for Action

With a view to encourage human rights education, the UN has launched various international frameworks of action. Notably among these are the World Program for Human Rights Education and the Sustainable Development Goals.

1. World Program for Human Rights Education

The World Program for Human Rights Education is structured in sector/specific phases. The first phase focused on human rights education in primary and secondary school systems (2005-2009), the second phase on higher education and teacher training (2010-2014).[22] The Human Rights Council decided to focus the third and current phase (2015-2019) on continued implementation of the first two phases and training for media professionals and journalists. The midterm progress report on implementation of this Program will be available in September of 2017.

2. Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

On September 25, 2015, the United Nations General Assembly adopted by resolution “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,” [23] (the “Agenda”) which launched the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (“SDGs” or “Goals”). The SDGs contain 169 targets aimed at eliminating poverty and hunger, improving health and education, achieving gender equality, promoting sustainable economic growth, building sustainable cities, combatting climate change, and restoring natural ecosystems. The fourth among these goals aims to “Ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning.” More than just an appeal to educate children, the goal contains distinct targets, relating to the quality and breadth of education, including ensuring that all learners “acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for . . . human rights.”[24]

Conclusion

Through various international human rights treaties, every state in the world has made some form of binding commitment to provide human rights education. The strongest instrument is the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which has 196 signatories; none of which has specifically entered a reservation from the pertinent Article 29(1) on provision of human rights education. Binding covenants to provide human rights education can also be found in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination; the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.[25] In addition to engaging the Universal Periodic Review to enforce state party obligations to provide human rights education, communicating with a Special Rapporteur on education may be another enforcement option to explore.

ANNEX

Charter of the UN

Article 1

The Purposes of the United Nations are:

1. To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace;
2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace;
3. To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion; and
4. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends.

 

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted after the end of World War II on 10 December 10, 1948 by United Nation (UN) General Assembly in Paris. UDHR was adopted after the world was drenched with atrocities by promising that war and conflict of such kind would never exist. At the time when the countries were badly devastated by World War II UDHR was drafted looking beyond the world of war and accepting the right of all individual to live in peaceful environment.

According to United Nation,  UDHR was proclaimed as a common standard of achievement for all people and all nation, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.
 The preamble to the UDHR reads:

Now, Therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THIS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.

Convention on the Rights of a Child

Article 29

1. States Parties agree that the education of the child shall be directed to:

(a) The development of the child’s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential;

(b) The development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, and for the principles enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations;

(c) The development of respect for the child’s parents, his or her own cultural identity, language and values, for the national values of the country in which the child is living, the country from which he or she may originate, and for civilizations different from his or her own;

(d) The preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes, and friendship among all peoples, ethnic, national and religious groups and persons of indigenous origin;

(e) The development of respect for the natural environment.

2. No part of the present article or article 28 shall be construed so as to interfere with the liberty of individuals and bodies to establish and direct educational institutions, subject always to the observance of the principle set forth in paragraph 1 of the present article and to the requirements that the education given in such institutions shall conform to such minimum standards as may be laid down by the State.

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

Article 13

1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to education. They agree that education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity, and shall strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. They further agree that education shall enable all persons to participate effectively in a free society, promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations and all racial, ethnic or religious groups, and further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
2. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize that, with a view to achieving the full realization of this right:

(a) Primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all;

(b) Secondary education in its different forms, including technical and vocational secondary education, shall be made generally available and accessible to all by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education;

(c) Higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education;

(d) Fundamental education shall be encouraged or intensified as far as possible for those persons who have not received or completed the whole period of their primary education;

(e) The development of a system of schools at all levels shall be actively pursued, an adequate fellowship system shall be established, and the material conditions of teaching staff shall be continuously improved.

3. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to have respect for the liberty of parents and, when applicable, legal guardians to choose for their children schools, other than those established by the public authorities, which conform to such minimum educational standards as may be laid down or approved by the State and to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions.
4. No part of this article shall be construed so as to interfere with the liberty of individuals and bodies to establish and direct educational institutions, subject always to the observance of the principles set forth in paragraph I of this article and to the requirement that the education given in such institutions shall conform to such minimum standards as may be laid down by the State.

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination

Article 7

States Parties undertake to adopt immediate and effective measures, particularly in the fields of teaching, education, culture and information, with a view to combating prejudices which lead to racial discrimination and to promoting understanding, tolerance and friendship among nations and racial or ethnical groups, as well as to propagating the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, and this Convention.

The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families

Article 12

1. Migrant workers and members of their families shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of their choice and freedom either individually or in community with others and in public or private to manifest their religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching.
2. Migrant workers and members of their families shall not be subject to coercion that would impair their freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of their choice.
3. Freedom to manifest one’s religion or belief may be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary to protect public safety, order, health or morals or the fundamental rights and freedoms of others.
4. States Parties to the present Convention undertake to have respect for the liberty of parents, at least one of whom is a migrant worker, and, when applicable, legal guardians to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions.

Article 33

1. Migrant workers and members of their families shall have the right to be informed by the State of origin, the State of employment or the State of transit as the case may be concerning:

(a) Their rights arising out of the present Convention;

(b) The conditions of their admission, their rights and obligations under the law and practice of the State concerned and such other matters as will enable them to comply with administrative or other formalities in that State. 2. States Parties shall take all measures they deem appropriate to disseminate the said information or to ensure that it is provided by employers, trade unions or other appropriate bodies or institutions. As appropriate, they shall co-operate with other States concerned.

2. Such adequate information shall be provided upon request to migrant workers and members of their families, free of charge, and, as far as possible, in a language they are able to understand.

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women

Article 10

States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in order to ensure to them equal rights with men in the field of education and in particular to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women:

(a) The same conditions for career and vocational guidance, for access to studies and for the achievement of diplomas in educational establishments of all categories in rural as well as in urban areas; this equality shall be ensured in pre-school, general, technical, professional and higher technical education, as well as in all types of vocational training;

(b) Access to the same curricula, the same examinations, teaching staff with qualifications of the same standard and school premises and equipment of the same quality;

(c) The elimination of any stereotyped concept of the roles of men and women at all levels and in all forms of education by encouraging coeducation and other types of education which will help to achieve this aim and, in particular, by the revision of textbooks and school programmes and the adaptation of teaching methods;

(d ) The same opportunities to benefit from scholarships and other study grants;

(e) The same opportunities for access to programmes of continuing education, including adult and functional literacy programmes, particulary those aimed at reducing, at the earliest possible time, any gap in education existing between men and women;

(f) The reduction of female student drop-out rates and the organization of programmes for girls and women who have left school prematurely;

(g) The same Opportunities to participate actively in sports and physical education;

(h) Access to specific educational information to help to ensure the health and well-being of families, including information and advice on family planning.

The Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment

Article 10

1. Each State Party shall ensure that education and information regarding the prohibition against torture are fully included in the training of law enforcement personnel, civil or military, medical personnel, public officials and other persons who may be involved in the custody, interrogation or treatment of any individual subjected to any form of arrest, detention or imprisonment.

2. Each State Party shall include this prohibition in the rules or instructions issued in regard to the duties and functions of any such person.

The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

 Article 24

1. States Parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to education. With a view to realizing this right without discrimination and on the basis of equal opportunity, States Parties shall ensure an inclusive education system at all levels and lifelong learning directed to:

a. The full development of human potential and sense of dignity and self-worth, and the strengthening of respect for human rights, fundamental freedoms and human diversity;

b. The development by persons with disabilities of their personality, talents and creativity, as well as their mental and physical abilities, to their fullest potential;

c. Enabling persons with disabilities to participate effectively in a free society.

2. In realizing this right, States Parties shall ensure that:

a. Persons with disabilities are not excluded from the general education system on the basis of disability, and that children with disabilities are not excluded from free and compulsory primary education, or from secondary education, on the basis of disability;

b. Persons with disabilities can access an inclusive, quality and free primary education and secondary education on an equal basis with others in the communities in which they live;

c. Reasonable accommodation of the individual’s requirements is provided;

d. Persons with disabilities receive the support required, within the general education system, to facilitate their effective education;

e. Effective individualized support measures are provided in environments that maximize academic and social development, consistent with the goal of full inclusion . . .

[1] On April 3, 2006, the General Assembly adopted a resolution, creating the Human Rights Council.   As part of that resolution, the Human Rights Council was tasked with the undertaking of a UPR to assess United Nations member states’ compliance with human rights obligations. The UPR does not currently examine a member states’ progress on provision of human rights education.

[2] Convention on the Rights of a Child, UN Treaty Series, vol 1577, 3 (Sep. 2, 1990), available at https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-11&chapter=4&clang=_en. Of note, freedom of conscience and religion is a human right per Article 18 of the Declaration on Human Rights.

[3] Committee on the Rights of the Child, Monitoring Children’s Rights, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CRC/Pages/CRCIntro.aspx (last visited March 28, 2017).

[4] Committee on the Rights of the Child, Fact Sheet No.10 (Rev.1), The Rights of the Child, Adopted by the Committee on the Rights of the Child at its first session, G.A. A/47/41 (October 1991), available at http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet10rev.1en.pdf.

[5] There are many general declarations made by Islamic Republics when ratifying this treaty that could limit the enforceability of the treaty. The only states that specifically reserved from Article 29, Indonesia and Turkey, subsequently withdrew their reservations. But Iran and Afghanistan, for example, entered a general reservation to only implement the treaty to the extent that it is consistent with Islamic Law. Syria and Bangladesh have entered a reservation from Article 14 on freedom of religion. Before seeking enforcement of provisions of the treaty against a particular state, an analysis should be conducted of the state’s reservations and declarations made upon ratification. An effective tool to help with this analysis can be found at http://indicators.ohchr.org/. This interactive map shows the ratification of human rights treaties and a state-by-state record of reservations made to the treaties.

[6] Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment no. 1, at 5, CRC/GC/2001/1 (April 17, 2001) available at https://www.unicef-irc.org/portfolios/general_comments/GC1_en.doc.html. General Comments are issued by all of the treaty bodies interpreting their relevant international treaty. General comments are typically the result of protracted discussions over several sessions of the relevant Committee and are seen as authoritative interpretations of the treaty.

[7] Id. at 6. In the General Comment to this article there is a well-developed discussion on the difference between the provision of education, which is mandated through Article 28 of the Convention, and the curricular content of education, which is the subject of Article 29. On the whole, states seem to enter reservations to the provisions of human rights treaties mandating compulsory education, but not to the covenants addressing the content of education, such as including human rights in curriculum. Compulsory education or universal coverage occupies the largest share of government spending in most countries. What is taught, the curriculum question, is less of a financial burden than a political issue. This may explain the pattern of reservations expressed by states.

[8] CERD has not been ratified by Angola, Bhutan, Nauru, Palau, and Singapore. Non-party states include Brunei Darussalam, Cook Islands, North Korea, Dominica, Kiribati, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Niue, Samoa, South Sudan, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.

[9] The purposes of the UN are listed in Article 1 of the UN Charter. In relevant part, Article 1(3) states that one of the purposes of the UN is to “achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.”

[10] Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, UN Treaty Series, vol. 660, at 202 (Dec. 21, 1965), available at http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CERD.aspx

[11] Int’l. Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, UN Treaty Series, vol. 993, 3 (Jan. 3, 1976), available at https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-3&chapter=4&clang=_en. ICESCR is one of the two main treaties that give legal force to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The other main treaty is the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which is quiet on the subject of human rights education.

[12] Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 13: The Right of Education (Art. 13), E/C.12/1999/10, para. 49, 59 (Dec. 8, 1999) available at http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4538838c22.pdf.

[13] The countries that entered reservations to Article 13(2) of ICESCR are Barbados, France, Ireland, Madagascar, Malta, Monaco, South Africa, Turkey, UK, Zambia.

[14] Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, UN Treaty Series, vol. 2515, at 3 (Dec. 13, 2006) available at https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-15&chapter=4&clang=_en.

[15] International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families, UN Treaty Series, vol. 2220, 3 (Dec. 18, 1990) available at https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-13&chapter=4&clang=_en.

[16] Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, UN Treaty Series, vol. 1465, at 85 (Dec. 10 1984) available at https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-9&chapter=4&clang=_en.

[17] Additional information regarding communications with the Special Rapporteurs is available at http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/SP/Pages/Communications.aspx.

[18] G.A. A/Res. 66/137 (Dec. 2011), available at https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N11/467/04/PDF/N1146704.pdf?OpenElement

[19] The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (the “UDHR”) was written and adopted in 1948, and clearly delineates which rights are considered fundamental human rights. Education, with the objective of the promotion of “understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups,” is specifically listed among these rights, as is the freedom of religion at Article 18.

[20] G.A. A/Res. 66/137.

[21] Id.

[22] Additional information about the World Program for Human Rights Education can be found at http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Education/Training/Pages/Programme.aspx.

[23] G.A. A/Res. 70/1 (Sep. 25, 2015) available at https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1. For more information on the Goal 4 of the SDG, please visit http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/education/.

[24] Id.

[25] The right to freedom of religion is a human right as stated in Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It follows that education about human rights includes education about freedom of religion, though this is not stated expressly in the treaty covenants.